Abstract
There has been a rise in adolescent mental health problems in recent years. One of the common causes of depression and anxiety in teenagers is often overprotective or strict authoritarian parenting styles. Overprotective parenting is characterized by excessive psychological and behavioral control of their children. This parenting style is similar to authoritarian parenting with the difference being that authoritarian parents tend not to show warmth. In examining this problem from a cultural perspective, the research project investigated, “To what extent does overprotective parenting lead to adolescent depression? “ A survey was distributed to adolescents in the US and China. There were 36 participants between the ages of 16 and 26+. The study found that participants that had overprotective and authoritarian styles of parenting tended to have more conflicts with their parents, did worse academically, had little social life, felt it was difficult to have friends, as well as they lost confidence in dating, or they needed to date who their parents wanted. With reference to mental health, more participants experienced anxiety as opposed to depression and most coped by listening to music,talking with friends and engaging in sports as a way to overcome their tension and distress. Culture did not play a role, surprisingly, but rather the style of parenting.
Introduction
Adolescence is a time of great change for young people. During adolescence, individuals gain more independence and take on more responsibilities as they try to navigate the complexities of adult life which for some causes mental health difficulties. Globally it is estimated that 1 in 10 adolescents suffer from a mental disorder1. In America, 15 % of teenagers suffer from depression, the highest rate of all the mental health disorders2. Some of the symptoms that adolescents experience when they have depression are persistent sadness, loss of interest, changes in appetite and sleep patterns, fatigue, difficulty
concentrating, feelings of worthlessness, and even thoughts of death or suicide3. Thus, understanding the causes of depression is important.
There are multiple reasons adolescents experience depression including hormonal changes, genetic predisposition, family history of mental health conditions, high levels of stress (such as academic pressure or social challenges), traumatic experiences, bullying, feelings of social isolation, body image issues, substance abuse, and underlying medical conditions4. Relationships with their parents because of their parenting styles also can cause depression in teenagers as they try to negotiate more freedom and independence which may cause more conflicts .
One type of parenting style that has been found to cause depression is overprotective parenting. Overprotective parenting is characterized by excessive psychological and behavioral control of their children5. Overprotective parenting can be expressed differently in different cultures. It’s especially difficult when teenagers move to a more liberal country and find that other adolescents have more freedoms, yet perhaps they, themselves, have more restrictions than the cultural norms of the country they are now living in because of expectations of their cultural background. Depression that results from not being able to find a balance between their parents and their own expectations due to cultural norms is an important area to research.
Therefore, this research project will explore: To what extent does overprotective parenting lead to adolescent depression? A Cultural Perspective.The study will address the following objectives: Examine the impact of cultural expectations on adolescents’ perceptions of parental control; analyze the correlation between overprotective parenting and adolescent depression under different cultures; and investigate how adolescents cope with mental health challenges due to overprotective parenting.
Literature Review
This literature will explore studies that investigate the relationship between adolescent depression and parenting styles, with an emphasis on overprotective parenting and the role of culture.
Adolescent Depression
Adolescent depression is a mental health problem which causes teenagers to feel frustrated and lose interest in everyday life. Globally, around 14% teenagers from 10 to 19 suffered mental disorders, and depression is one of the main contributors6. The rate of depression among adolescents aged 10- 14 was 1. 1%, with an increase to 2.8% among adolescents aged 15- 19. Adolescent depression may cause an abrupt and unpredictable shift in teenager’s mood, which can affect teenagers’ academic performance and social interactions negatively6. Researchers suggest that these rates are closer to 13%, similar to those in countries where more young people access mental health services. Young people in less developed countries are diagnosed less because they have less access to affordable services. Only young people that have been diagnosed and received mental health services can be accessed for research. The estimate, therefore, is presumed to be higher6.
Parenting Styles
Parenting styles have been known to cause distress in young people. There are four types of parenting, including authoritarian parenting, permissive parenting, authoritative (democratic) parenting, and uninvolved parenting7.
| Parenting Style | Characteristics | Effects on Teenagers |
| Authoritarian Parenting | Rigid rules enforced with punishmentLittle warmth or emotional supportNo room for negotiation or discussion | More obedient or anxiousMore rebelliousLower Self-Esteem |
| Permissive Parenting | few rules or structureparents act more as friendsminimal discipline | Lacks self disciplineBecomes impulsive |
| Authoritative (Democratic) Parenting | Clear expectations and rulesWarm, encouraging independenceOpen communication | More confidentBetter social and academic performanceGood communication skills |
| Uninvolved Parenting | NeglectfulLittle emotional support | Difficult managing emotions |
Overprotective Parenting & Culture
The following international studies explore the effect of overprotective parenting styles from youth in the Netherlands, Belgium, Malaysia, China, India, Middle Eastern and Latin American backgrounds, South Africa and the Philippines.
In a study by Mousavi et.al 8, researchers explored the relationship between perceived parenting styles and anxiety among culturally different adolescents. Researchers provided questionnaires to 227 students aged from 13 to 18 from different cultural backgrounds such as Malaysia, China, India, Middle Eastern and white origins to measure parenting styles and anxiety symptoms.They found cultural differences happened in parenting styles and anxiety, especially between Caucasians and non-Caucasians. There were significant differences in anxiety symptoms among the five cultural groups.
| Region | Anxiety Symptoms |
| Europe and America | fewest anxiety symptoms reported |
| asian | higher levels of anxiety symptoms |
| Culture Group | Emotional Warmth | Anxious/Overprotective Parenting |
| Chinese Adolescents | lowest reported emotional warmth | High levels of anxious rearing |
| Malaysian Adolescents | More emotional warmth than Chinese adolescents | Higher levels of anxious reading than Chinese adolescents |
| Indian Adolescents | More emotional warmth compared to Chinese & Malaysian teens | Less anxious parenting compared to Malaysian adolescents |
| Arab Adolescents | Higher levels of emotional warmth than Chinese adolescents | Higher level of overcontrol/overprotective parenting |
| Cultural Group | Predictor of Anxiety |
| Chinese Adolescents | Anxious rearing |
| Malaysian Adolescents | Parental rejection |
| Indian Adolescents | Overprotective parenting |
| European & American Adolescents | Overprotective parenting |
| Arab Adolescents | Overprotective parenting |
This study indicates that if parents are overprotective, adolescents are more likely to have internalizing problems (like depression or anxiety) and antisocial behavior (hurting others) and may exhibit lower academic achievement. Whether adolescents perceive their parents as warm and rejecting matters too. If parents are not only overprotective but also display warm and caring behaviors, then this caring may help to mitigate the negative effects of overprotection; However, apathy may exacerbate the negative effects of overprotection89.
In a study by Arslan et al9, the aim was to explore the effects of maternal and paternal overprotection on adolescent development and examined differences that may result from parental gender differences. The procedure was to use data from the Dutch Trials cohort study, which included a questionnaire and interview data from young people 11, 13 and 16 years of age that were analyzed. The participants were a sample of 2,229 adolescents from five municipalities in the northern Netherlands. Findings showed that perceived maternal and paternal overprotection was associated with increased internalizing problems and decreased prosocial behavior in adolescents. This association was more pronounced between the ages of 11 and 16. Regarding the affection shown by parents, there was no gender difference found. This means it did not matter which gender of the parent was overprotective, because the overprotective style
made young people feel anxious or depressed with less positive behaviors towards others.
In a study by Flamant et.al 10,the researchers explored how adolescents with overprotective parents coped with their developmental issues and the role that their coping strategies play in regulating the relationship between parental overprotection and maladjustment. The data was collected and analyzed using a moderation-mediation model. The conclusion is that family-based interventions targeting adolescents’ coping responses may improve their psychosocial adjustment and the relationship between parents and adolescents.
The similarities between Netherlands and Belgiums shows below.
| Category | The Netherlands | Belgium |
| Sample Size | 2229 adolescents (ages 11, 13 and 16) from 5 municipalities | 382 adolescents (approximately 17 years old) |
| Impact of Overprotective Parenting | Both maternal and paternal overprotection associated with increased internalizing problems and reduced prosocial behavior | Overprotective parenting linked to developmental problems and psychological frustration |
| Coping Mechanisms | no specific focus on coping mechanisms | coping responses like compulsive compliance worsened developmental issues, negotiation played a protective role |
| Parent Gender impact | no gender difference in the impact of maternal vs paternal overprotection | maternal overprotection influenced outcomes. There is no parental influence comparison. |
| Age Group | adolescents aged 11-16 were most affected by parental overprotection | adolescents around 17 years old faced similar issues from overprotection |
According to this comparison chart, there are some similarities and differences of overprotectiveness under different cultural backgrounds. The similarities is that overprotective parenting style is related to developmental problems including anxiety in both countries. The differences are the coping mechanisms used by the two adolescents groups, and it seems the confrontation between parents and children can make developmental issues worse, while communication can alleviate them.
The study was conducted by Van Petegem11 explored the relationship between adolescents’ perceptions of the co-parental relationship which is how parents interact with each other in their parental role and overprotective parenting. The researchers hypothesized that overprotective parenting would be linked to higher levels of anxiety symptoms in adolescents. There were 174 Swiss adolescents participants who were around 17 years old, and 73% of them were girls. In this study, the participants were asked to fill out questionnaires to assess their perceptions of the co-parental relationship. In conclusion, the researchers found that overprotective parenting is positively correlated with the anxiety level of teenagers.
In this cross-sectional study conducted by Ullmann et al12, the researchers tried to explore the potential link between the overprotective parenting style and how it affects children’s disease burden. Well, the main objective was to gain a deeper understanding of the origins and consequences of intergenerational psychological trauma. The study involved 40 healthy students as participants, and the findings indicated that both hair cortisol levels and overprotective parenting were reliable indicators for diagnosing TSRD (Trauma and Stressor-Related Disorders). This shows that although parents might think that being overprotective protects their children, it can actually create trauma.
Parental characteristics, such as their gender and mental health, were explored in the next two studies in relation to their parenting styles and effect on their teenage children. In a study conducted by Piko & Balazs13, researchers in Hungary examined the impact of authoritative parenting style and other family factors like negative family interactions and positive parental identification, on adolescent depressive symptoms.
Here are the gender differences in parental influence on Depressive Symptoms.
| Factor | boys | girls |
| parenting style and depression | Authoritative parenting negatively associated with mood problems | Authoritative parenting negatively associated with mood problems, stronger effect on girls |
| maternal responsiveness | greater positive effect on reducing depression in boys | less significant impact on girls’ depression |
| parental responsiveness | less significant impact on boys’ depression | strong positive effect on reducing depression in girls |
| maternal demandingness | positively correlated with boys’ depression | positively correlated with girls’ depression |
| parenteral demandingness | less significant impact on boys’ depression | strong positive correlation with girls’ depression |
This study indicated the similarities and differences on both genders when they cope with authoritative parenting style. Authoritative parenting has a negative association with both genders, but the impact on the girls is stronger. Maternal responsiveness had a stronger positive effect on reducing depression in boys than they did in girls. This means that boys may benefit more from maternal attention than girls when experiencing high maternal responsiveness. General parental responsiveness had a stronger effect on reducing depression for girls than boys. This suggests that girls have a broader emotional attachment or expectations towards both parents. Maternal demandingness is positively associated with depression in both boys and girls, referring that excessive pressure from mothers lead to higher levels of stress and depression to children from both genders. The more positive association between paternal demandingness and depression in girls than boys suggests that girls are more sensitive to their fathers’ expectations than boys are.
In a study by Morales & Torres14, the researchers examined the potential link between parental psychopathology, psychosocial stress, and the manifestation of overprotective parenting behaviors. The researchers invited 64 Latino parents as participants. Psychosocial stress, psychopathology, and overprotective parenting behaviors were measured through completed questionnaires from parents. The study utilized regression analyses to investigate the factors predicting overprotective parenting, which encompassed control, supervision, and separation-related concerns. Researchers found that, due to immigration-related stress, Latino parents used controlling parenting styles. This shows that external factors on parents’ lives that affect their psychopathology can influence their parenting style.
Race also can be a factor affecting parenting styles. Muris et.al15 investigated DSM-defined anxiety symptoms in adolescents from South Africa. The researchers collected data from 701 children and adolescents, of which 334 were boys and 367 were girls, ages 8 to 18 years old from primary schools near Stellenbosch, South Africa.
| Cultural Group | Anxiety Levels | Parenting Styles Linked to Anxiety |
| White Youth | Lower anxiety levels compared to colored youth | less impact from anxious rearing, overprotection, and rejection |
| Colored Youth | higher anxiety levels | Anxious rearing, overprotection, and rejection |
According to the data, white youth report lower levels of anxiety than colored youth. This difference reflects broader societal factors and challenges faced by the colored youth, such as economic disparities, social status, or historical inequalities, which contribute to higher levels of anxiety to colored youth. Anxious rearting, overprotection, and rejection had little effect on anxiety levels among white youth. This suggests that even if white adolescents are exposed to these less supportive parenting styles, they may have more external resources, including better access to mental health care, education, or community support, to buffer against the negative effects of this parenting. However, colored youth have higher levels of anxiety when they are exposed to anxious rearing, overprotection, and rejection. This is because colored youth face more external stressors on average than white youth, including socioeconomic challenges or racial discrimination, which can amplify the effects of negative parenting.
Based on the study conducted by Ganaprakasam et.al16, researchers investigated how helicopter parenting affected psychological well-being and self-efficacy for learning among adolescents. Helicopter parenting, the colloquial term of overprotective parenting, refers to a style of parenting where parents exhibit overprotective behaviors in a highly controlling way (Omer et.al, 2016). The study involved 96 adolescents aged from fifteen to seventeen, who were selected from a community-based catechism school located in the northern part of Peninsular Malaysia. The participants filled in the Helicopter Parenting
Questionnaire, the General Health Questionnaire, and a self-efficacy for learning scale. The findings of the research revealed that there was a negative correlation between the overprotective parenting style and the overall well-being of adolescents.
Furthermore, the study highlighted the harmful effects of helicopter parenting on adolescents’ self-efficacy for learning. It will be a challenge for the children who are raised by helicopter parents to excessively rely on external guidance and evaluation to learn independently and confidently.
The study by Gere et.al 17 aimed to examine the relationship between overprotective parenting and child anxiety, and consider co-occurring behavior problems at the same time. In this study, there were 190 children (aged 7-13, 89 boys), 171 mothers, and 135 fathers as participants to elevated child internalizing symptoms. The researchers collected data from “Anxiety Disorder Interview Schedule for DSM-IV, Child and Parent versions” , “Child Behavior Checklist” , and “Rearing Behavior Questionnaire”. The research revealed that once the co-occurring child behavior symptoms were taken into account, the significant correlation previously observed between overprotective parenting and child anxiety symptoms vanished. This indicates that overprotective parenting might not be the only direct factor linked to child anxiety. It appears that the connection between child anxiety symptoms and overprotective parenting could be explained by the presence of simultaneous child behavior problems, indicating how children’s behaviors affect parenting and how parenting styles can affect children’s behaviors.
Attachment styles were explored in this next study and the impact of their parenting style after children leave home. A study investigated why parents tend to adopt an excessively protective parenting style during interactions with their approaching adulthood children. Specifically, they explored the correlations between parental attachment styles (maternal and paternal attachment anxiety and avoidance), parental separation anxiety, and parental overprotectiveness. Additionally, they examined whether maternal attachment, separation anxiety, and overprotectiveness can predict the real-life situation of emerging adults one year later (living at home or away from home), as well as the adverse effects of maternal overprotectiveness on their departure. The study involved 246 white adolescents in their final year of high school, along with their parents, including 242 mothers and 218 fathers. The average age of the participants was 17.14 years. Data was collected from participants through a questionnaire survey to assess parental attachment styles, separation anxiety, and overprotection. Findings showed that parental attachment anxiety is positively associated with elevated separation anxiety and heightened parental overprotection. Maternal attachment anxiety is correlated with paternal separation anxiety, and both are linked to maternal overprotection, demonstrating significant partner effects. Maternal separation anxiety directly corresponds to more adverse impacts when children leave home. Moreover, increased maternal overprotection is connected to a higher probability of children residing at home one year later and experiencing more negative effects during the leaving process.
In summary, these studies show that external factors such as culture, race, external political situations, gender of parents, together with internal factors such as attachment styles, psychopathology of parents and internalized beliefs about parenting styles all can affect the mental health of adolescents as they try to gain independence and develop their identity during this stage of their development. These studies helped to inform how this research study was designed.
Methodology
The research design included developing a quantitative survey to young people 16 years old and older on August 1st, 2023. The study used two ways to collect the answers, spreading the survey via instagram, and some people forwarded this survey on their own accounts, so more and more people from different groups answered this survey. Researchers also put this survey on an employment website to pay for the answers. Researchers took out one survey result after figuring out there are some inconsistencies in that result, and that result was considered invalid.Fourteen questions were developed that asked questions related to parenting styles, the level of freedom people had as teenagers to
direct their lives and the impact of those parenting styles on their friendships, personal relationships, academic achievement, how they coped, and whether they would use the same parenting style with their own children in the future. The pie chart at the top is the seven people from instagram, and the one below is the 29 participants from the employment website.
Participants
Participants were 27% males and 70.3 % females; 2.7% of people responded non-binary.
Participants came from various cultures: 86.4 % were of Asian background, 10.8% were North American, and 2.7% were from African cultural backgrounds.
The ages of participants were varied. 24.3% who were 16-18 years old,16.2% were between the ages of 19-21, 32.4% were 22-25 and 24.3% were between 26-28 years old.
Results
How could you describe the parenting style of growing up?
How has the parenting style affected you?
How did your parenting style cause your distress?
How did your parenting style affect your friendship?
How did your parenting style affect your academic achievement?
Did your parents’ style of parenting influence your future goals and plans about work or education?
Did their parenting styles affect your romantic relationships?
How did you cope when you did not agree or like their parenting style?
To what extent was your parents’ parenting style influenced by their culture?
Do you think that parenting rules are more strict in your culture in comparison to other cultures?
If you are living abroad, outside of your own country, to what extent are your parents more overprotective?
If you are living abroad, do you feel there are big differences in the cultural values that cause distress because your parents are overprotective?
If /when you have children, will you have the same parenting styles as your parents？
If you answered no, what would you change?
Discussion
This research explored, “ To what extent does overprotective parenting lead to adolescent depression?A Cultural Perspective.” An examination of participant responses that indicated that they experienced overprotective but warm parenting styles (37.8%) and authoritarian-strict, controlling parenting styles (16.2%) are compared in relation to the quality of their mental health. Overprotective parenting was examined in relation to the degree that participants’ mental health was affected as a result of the degree of conformity or conflict that they had with their parents’ expectations, quality of friendships and romantic relationships, academic achievement, cultural values and coping skills.
Similar findings from Flamant et.al18, findings showed that those with overprotective parents and authoritarian parenting styles, experienced more conflicts with their parents (37.8 %) than those from more permissive parenting styles and those that were compliant with their parents expectations suffered more mental health effects such as anxiety or depression.
Participants’ mental health was also affected if overprotective parenting affected their social social life. The research found that those with overprotective parents experienced less of a social life, felt it was difficult to have friends as well as lost confidence in dating, or they needed to date who their parents wanted. Those with authoritarian parenting styles experienced better relationships with friends even though they too lacked confidence in dating. This could be due to their young age and inexperience with romantic relationships.This could possibly also be a result of a finding by Arslan9 that suggests that overprotective parenting can make young people feel anxious or depressed with less positive behaviors towards others which may interfere with developing positive relationships.
The research found that those with overprotective parents and authoritarian parents were less successful academically as they felt more anxious about attaining high academic achievement. Some did not care whether they met their parents expectations for good grades and were unmotivated. This shows that both strict controlling parenting and overprotective parenting can have a negative effect on academic achievement as suggested also by the findings by Ganaprakasam et.al 16 who found that “helicopter parenting” , a form of overprotective parenting prevents children from gaining confidence in their learning ability.
With respect to tension between one’s cultural values and that of the host country if they lived abroad, the research found that those with overprotective parents and authoritarian parenting styles didn’t have a significant tension due to a clash of cultural values.
Young people with both overprotective and authoritarian parenting styles used music to escape as a coping mechanism, as well as talking to friends and engaging in sports.
In answering the research question, results of this study showed that both overprotective and authoritarian parenting styles can cause depression but also anxiety in young people. This appeared to be true across cultures of participants. The parenting style was the primary factor on young people’s mental health and not culture. This means that no matter what culture the parents come from, if they raise their children in an authoritative way or an overprotective way, similar negative psychological effects will happen under all cultural backgrounds. Therefore, the root cause of mental health problems often can be traced back to the power imbalance in parenting styles rather than cultural differences. Finally, under globalization of today, parenting styles are spreading across cultural boundaries. Modern parents rely on scientific and psychological research to guide their parenting practices more and more. As a result, culture was not the key factor in this process. Therefore, instead of attributing anxiety and depression problems to cultural differences, it is better to focus on how to improve parenting styles, enhance children’s autonomy and emotional support, and thus improve their mental health.
The majority of participants said that they would not repeat their parent’s overprotective parenting style. Future research may examine how the children of overprotective parents actually parent their children.
Finally, This study also has one limitation, the lack of exploration of the potential for a two-way relationship between parenting style and adolescent behavior. This study focuses on how overprotective parenting can lead to increased anxiety in adolescents, but it does not talk a lot about how adolescents’ coping mechanisms influence parental control in turn. The future research can track how parenting styles and adolescent behavior interact in a bidirectional way and how they change over time. The future research can also track if parents are aware of their overprotectiveness and how they justify it under different cultural contexts. Additionally, the future researchers should consider more to the intersection of socioeconomic status and culture, taking into account variables such as income, education, and access to resources. This can further clarify whether socioeconomic inequalities or the racial differences lead to anxiety and parenting instead of cultural factors.
Conclusion
In conclusion, there are many factors affecting the mental health of young people. However, one of those factors has to do with parenting styles. While parents try to protect their children, they actually prevent them from building confidence in their ability to manage their lives. Holding young people back creates frustration, sadness and anxiety because they cannot change their situation which affects their lives, such as their academic achievement, ability to maintain friendships and relationships and even plan for the future that they want which may not be the same as their parents expectations. Young people that have better coping skills use music, sports and talking to others that they can have access to. However, some use substances that create greater problems for their lives. As adolescence is a time of growth and independence, it would be helpful for parents to have support so they can communicate better with their children. School is a good place to offer this support as parents will more likely go to events hosted by the school such as parenting evenings, whereas they might not seek support from outside help because they might not feel they are doing anything wrong. If parents are supported and taught how to respond to their children, then they will not need to be so strict, but learn to develop trust that their children can make good decisions.
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