Impact of Trauma-Driven Authoritarian Parenting on Cambodian Adolescents

Abstract

The Cambodian survivors of the Khmer Rouge genocide have changed their parenting styles based on those influences on their children, creating a complexity of resilience and vulnerability. The present study looks at the associations between parenting styles that give leather to a form of authority seen in the frail survivors of Cambodia and the resultant development of adolescents. A self-report was published ranging over a sample of 12 Cambodian American families, performing the survey on trauma histories, parenting practices, and adolescent outcomes using complex systems. The results indicated that 88.8% of parents demonstrated non-authoritarian or mildly authoritarian tendencies, while 11.2% believed strictly authoritarian. Adolescents raised in highly authoritarian environments expressed the generational shift in parenting styles. Adolescents raised in authoritarian homes expressed deeper concerns for their safety and varying levels of resilience in the expression of the complicated connection between parental trauma and developmental outcomes. Families that persistently apply strict authoritarianism in their parenting practice are still faced with challenges despite attempts to cope with intergenerational trauma. Limitations include a very small sample size and reliance on self-reported data, thus reducing the generalizability of findings. Future studies should include larger, more diverse samples and incorporate a longitudinal study design to examine these dynamics over time. This study provides insight into trauma and its impact on the parenting styles following the genocides and calls for culturally sensitive parenting interventions to encourage resilience and improve parenting and mental outcomes among Cambodian families.

Introduction

Psychological trauma resulting from catastrophic events can last for a long time and often affects many generations¹. It profoundly impacts the lives of individuals who experience it and their families, influencing emotional, behavioral, and relational dynamics^2,3,4. The Khmer Rouge genocide is a pivotal and traumatic event in Cambodia’s past, claimed 1.7 million individuals⁵, and profoundly disrupted family structure, shaping parenting practices and child development. For many survivors, the loss of family and memories of extreme suffering shaped their lives after the war, influencing their adoption of strict parenting styles upon resettling to the United States⁵. This authoritarian parenting style, shaped by traumatic experiences of genocide, has profoundly affected their children’s mental health, emotional development, and social well-being. While there has been considerable research on the effects of genocides, including studies on Holocaust survivors and how trauma can be passed down through genetics and learned behaviors¹, these findings can offer valuable insights for understanding the experiences of Cambodian genocide survivors. Studies on Holocaust survivors have extensively documented the effects of parenting on intergenerational trauma. Still, there remains a significant lack of parallel research on Cambodian genocide survivors and their families. Further, this limits understanding of how unique cultural and historical factors influence trauma’s transmission across generations¹. These findings contribute to addressing the limited body of research on Cambodian survivors by providing new insights into how trauma-driven parenting styles influence adolescent resilience and vulnerability. This underscores the need for further studies to deepen understanding and support culturally sensitive interventions. Drawing parallels from Holocaust studies, which emphasize trauma’s effect on parental emotional regulation and attachment patterns, to Cambodian survivors provides a framework for examining how similar dynamics influence parenting styles and their children’s psychological resilience and vulnerability^6,7,8. Such as the Holocaust and other extensive studies on the effects of intergenerational trauma research regarding parenting styles affecting adolescents’ mental health and development in Cambodian genocide survivors, is notably sparse. This gap underscores the need for more focused research into Cambodian youth and their experiences as children of survivors^9,10. Studying parenting practices within these families is essential in understanding how trauma affects future generations.

Parenting styles profoundly shape a child’s emotional regulation, problem-solving skills, and social competence, with positive practices fostering resilience and detrimental styles increasing the risk for anxiety, aggression, and relationship difficulties you adopt as a parent shapes a child’s emotional regulation, problem-solving skills, and social competence.^2,11,12 It encourages secure attachments and a greater tendency for children to grow into well-adjusted adolescents better prepared to face adversities. Conversely, detrimental parenting practices such as authoritarianism can help create emotional and behavioral issues of significant severity, ranging from anxiety and aggression to the fear of healthy relationships¹². These impacts are compounded in trauma-affects families, where heightened emotional reactivity and inconsistent response can disrupt a child’s sense of security¹². For traumatized individuals, a heightened perception of threat often leads to excessive control over their child’s environment as a protective measure¹³.

According to research on Cambodian-American families, it is suggested that the fear of physical torture by the Khmer Rouge might result in authoritarian parenting⁸. Some continue to employ harsh authoritarian practices, while others foster resilience in the second generation by adopting more supportive parenting approaches¹⁰. Together, these findings highlight the nuanced interplay between trauma and parenting styles in shaping adolescent resilience or vulnerability. This study aims to determine whether the authoritarian parenting style of Cambodian genocide survivors contributes more to vulnerability or resilience in their children. By examining the intergenerational transmission of these parenting practices, the research seeks to fill a critical gap in understanding the generational trauma within Cambodian families. Specifically, this study investigates whether the trauma-driven authoritarian parenting style is perpetuated across generations and how it influences the mental health, emotional well-being, and developmental outcomes of Cambodian adolescents. Drawing parallels to Holocaust studies, which highlight how genocidal trauma shapes family dynamics and transmits psychological vulnerabilities, this research extends to the exploration of Cambodian survivors^1,10. By shedding light on the parenting practices and development outcomes of Cambodian genocide survivors and their children, this study addresses a critical gap in literature. These findings provide a foundation for further research on this underrepresented population, informing culturally sensitive approaches to healing intergenerational trauma.

Research question: How has history shaped Cambodian family’s authoritarian parenting style, and how does this style impact the resilience, vulnerability, and overall development of Cambodian adolescents?

Methodology

Participants

This study recruited 12 participants through the online platform Qualtrics, targeting Cambodian-American families in the United States¹⁴. Participants for this study were required to be 30 years or older and self-identify as either Khmer Rouge survivors or their descendants. Including this age group ensured participants had meaningful insights into intergenerational dynamics and parenting practices. Younger participants were included to represent perspectives from the adolescent generation.The survey comprised 16 questions, focusing on demographic details, immigration experiences, and parenting practices (see Appendix A). Screening questions confirmed eligibility, such as identifying the participant’s generational link to Cambodia and their age. Due to the survey’s anonymous design, gender data was not collected. The study’s small sample size reflects the challenges of recruiting participants from this underrepresented population while maintaining ethical and methodological rigor. All responses were fully completed, and no incomplete data was excluded. However, the small sample size remains a limitation in terms of generalizability. All participants provided informed consent, with assurances of confidentiality and voluntary participation. The survey explored parenting styles, cultural and familial values transmission, and participants’ reflections on their upbringing and future parenting practices.

Materials

This paper details the survey administration of a survey instrument created to gather data on trauma history, parenting practices, and resiliency among adolescents in Cambodian-American families. The survey included 16 questions: 13 multiple-choice questions aimed at eliciting information on participants’ experiences with discipline, household stressors, and emotional support, and three open-ended questions that explored future parenting practices. These questions served to gauge respondents’ views of different parenting practices, their lives in family situations, and their considerations of relationships with other generations. To ensure data reliability, the survey was pretested on a smaller group before full administration, allowing for refinement of the questions to improve clarity and alignment with the study’s objectives. Survey questions about disciplinary methods, emotional support, and levels of tension in the household were used to determine parenting styles. Questions about the participants’ treatment as children—whether they, as adults and future parents, would repeat or change certain practices—is an indirect assessment of resilience. The questionnaire used in the survey was developed by the authors based on themes identified in previous studies related to intergenerational trauma⁶,¹⁰. Although it has not been formally validated, the survey was reviewed by experts in trauma and family studies for clarity and appropriateness.

Results

The survey data revealed varying levels of trauma history among Cambodian parents, with 22.2% of respondents reporting a trauma history associated with an age of 16 and 11.1% reporting trauma histories linked to ages 54, 63, 55, 47, 41, 50, and 61, respectively.

Statistical Analysis

Data were collected through an online survey using Qualtrics, which provided anonymity and confidentiality for respondents. Quantitative responses from multiple-choice questions were analyzed using descriptive statistical methods within Qualtrics. This included insights into trends, relationships, and differences within the data through graphical and tabular summaries. Free responses were analyzed through subjective coding. Each free-response was involved in the reading process to carefully identify recurring patterns, key themes, and unique insights related to parenting styles and resilience. The responses of the 12 participants ensured that all meaningful data was interpreted accurately. All responses were completed without unanswered questions, ensuring a complete dataset analysis.

A chi-square test was conducted ot examine the relatinship between trauma and parenting style. The results revealed a significant association: χ² (3, N=12)=8.14, p=0.0. This suggests that individuals with trauma histories were more likely to report authoritarian tendencies in their parenting styles. Expressly, 44.4% of the respondents indicated a non-authoritarian style, while another 44.4% exhibited some authoritarian tendencies. A smaller percentage. 5.6% indicated minimal authoritarian tendencies; another explicitly identified with an authoritarian style.

A correlation analysis examined the relationship between parenting style and adolescent safety concerns. The analysis revealed (r=0.52, p=0.03), indicating that higher levels of authoritarian parenting were associated with increased adolescent safety concerns. The safety concerns expressed by adolescents included:

• 27.8% of respondents cited safety concerns related to their home environment.
• 27.8% fell under the general response category
• 11.1% cited concerns about future opportunities
• 5.6% mentioned political and social stability

These findings indicate that while authoritarian parenting might provide a structure and controlled environment, it can also exacerbate fears and anxieties in adolescents.

Parenting Style	Percentage (%)
Non-Authoritarian	44.4%
Mildly Authoritarian	44.4%
Strictly Authoritarian	5.6%
Minimal Authoritarian	5.6%
Safety Concerns related to home environment	27.8%
General Concerns	27.8%
Future Opportunities	11.1%
Political Concerns	5.6%

Discussion

Comparison with Existing Studies

These findings support current literature on intergenerational trauma and authoritarian parenting. Research among Holocaust survivors¹ has established the same pattern where patterns of parental control driven by trauma influence child development and mental health. Similar to Cambodian parents in this research, Holocaust survivors had heightened protective behavior, in some cases in the form of authoritarian control, to shield children from perceived harm.

Nevertheless, some differences also existed when compared with other trauma groups. Whereas for Holocaust survivors, an overprotective but supportive childrearing mode has been assumed in a substantial percentage of their parents¹⁵, Cambodian parents in our study were strongest in their resemblance to authoritarian ways, in which obedience and punitive measures were highly valued at the expense of soothing and emotional availability. This deviation may be influenced by national culture and Cambodian history regarding strict hierarchy among family members.

Potential Explanations for Differences

There may be cultural differences where their ambodian cultural values emphasize great respect for elders and strict discipline, which can further enhance authoritarian tendencies in parenting.

• Lack of Mental Health Resources: Unlike Holocaust survivors who were offered post-trauma care programs, Cambodian refugees were occasionally denied the same level of psychological care when resettled in the United States, thus further complicating the process of stopping trauma-based authoritarian parenting.
• Perceived Threats: Cambodian parents who experienced the Khmer Rouge era may have learned to internalize a heightened sense of threat, which results in greater control over children as a protection.

Implications for Future Research

These findings highlight the need for culturally tailored interventions that target intergenerational trauma and parenting behavior among Cambodian populations. Future studies should increase sample size to enhance generalizability, conduct longitudinal studies to capture changes in parenting behavior across generations, and investigate the role of community support in mitigating trauma-informed parenting behavior¹⁶,¹⁷.

Conclusion

Connections to Objectives

The findings from this study indicate the potential influence of Cambodian parents’ trauma histories on their parenting styles and the subsequent development of resilience or vulnerability in their adolescent children. The high prevalence of non-authoritarian or mildly authoritarian parenting styles (88.8%) suggests a potential generational shift, wherein some parents consciously seek to mitigate the adverse effects of their own traumatic experiences by adopting more flexible or nurturing approaches. This study aligns with findings emphasizing that positive parenting practices foster secure emotional development, problem-solving, and a sense of security in adolescents¹². Additionally, it parallels to previous literature on trauma transmission, such as the study conducted with survivors of the Holocaust that documents how, over time and across generations, trauma-informed parenting develops and fosters resilience. It is essential to recognize that these findings are preliminary and derived from a small sample size, which it limits their applicability to the border Cambodian-American population.

Conversely, 11.2% of parents who identified with explicit authoritarian practices raised concerns regarding the persistence of trauma-informed parenting behaviors. These parents may, therefore, unconsciously re-create the structure of authoritarianism as a mechanism to enforce their control or protections based on their perceptions of security and success. This finding diverges from the observed trend of generational shift toward flexibility and may attributed to unresolved trauma or strong cultural norms. For instance, adverse environments can trigger biological and systematic responses that perpetrate harmful parenting practices, potentially influencing children’s resilience development. This aligns with the 27.8% of teens who reported feeling unsafe, which might reflect, in turn, their parents trying to protect them from perceived threats from outside their homes.

Nevertheless, given the small sample size, such trends should be interpreted cautiously, as they cannot necessarily be generalized to describe all Cambodian-American families. The data also reveals various factors that may shape resilience among Cambodian adolescents, including parenting approaches and broader safety concerns. This indicates that while some adolescents develop resilience, possibly due to the more flexible parenting styles observed, others remain vulnerable due to ongoing fears and uncertainties, likely exacerbated by ongoing fears and  uncertainties associated with authoritarian practices¹⁰. The findings point to active interventions that could alleviate the cascading effects of trauma on parenting and adolescent development. For example, trauma-informed parenting education programs could help Cambodian parents learn strategies that emphasize emotional support while minimizing authoritarian tendencies. Such interventions might mitigate safety concerns for adolescents by addressing the underlying sources of parental behaviors linked with trauma. Furthermore, resilience-building programs for adolescents—such as school-based mentorship or peer support groups—might allow youth to navigate safety concerns and develop coping mechanisms. In this manner, the creation of intergenerational, culturally sensitive support networks would help bring about a greater possibility for fostering intergenerational communication and allowing safe spaces where families could engage in healing their trauma and its impacts. Cycles of trauma can be broken, and resilience fostered across generations, through interventions grounded in the study’s findings. These findings contribute to the theoretical understanding of intergenerational trauma by highlighting the interaction between parental trauma, parenting styles, and adolescent development within a culturally specific context. Given the small scope of this study, these findings should be interpreted as preliminary, with further research needed to test and expand these observations. Future research should aim to explore these patterns with a more representative sample to provide a nuanced understanding of intergenerational trauma and resilience within Cambodian-American families.

Limitations

A key limitation of this study is the small sample size, which may need to capture the diversity of experiences within the Cambodian community fully. The limited number of participants reduces the generalizability of the findings and suggests that the results should be interpreted cautiously. Additionally, the reliance on self-reported data may introduce bias, as respondents might underreport or overreport certain behaviors or experiences due to social desirability or memory recall issues. However, the limitations of the paper do not diminish its significance.

While constraints bind it, the research offers insights into a minority that has been underrepresented in trauma and parenting literature. These findings add to the existing literature on intergenerational trauma by highlighting culturally specific dynamics within Cambodian families and providing a framework for future research to build upon. The focus on the relationship between trauma, parenting styles, and adolescent development additionally serves as a ground where inventions and policies sensitive to the culture of the families affected by trauma can be formulated. By initiating this line of inquiry, this study calls for exploring this area and opens up the way toward more extensive and representative studies.

Closing Thought

Despite these limitations, this study contributes valuable insights into the ongoing impact of trauma on parenting within the Cambodian community. Future research should aim to include a more extensive and diverse sample to better understand the range of parenting practices and their effects on adolescent resilience and vulnerability. Longitudinal studies could also provide more  in-depth insights into how these dynamics evolve over time and across generations. Furthermore, this study highlights the need for targeted interventions that support Cambodian parents in adopting non-authoritarian parenting styles, particularly those who have experienced significant trauma. By providing parents with tools and strategies to navigate their past traumas without imposing authoritarian practices on their children, future interventions could foster greater resilience in Cambodian adolescents. This research thus lays the groundwork for more comprehensive studies that can inform culturally sensitive mental health and parenting programs, ultimately contributing to the well-being of Cambodian families.

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